Cannabis Compound Reduces Seizures

A recent retrospective study conducted by Dr. Robert Carson (MD, PhD) and colleagues announced a promising outcome that potentially reduces or in some cases entirely prevent seizures resulting from epilepsy. Dr. Carson and company analyzed over 100 medical records from different patients suffering from refractory epilepsy, using a dataset gathered from Vanderbilt University Medical Center’s BioVU. The team was able to successfully identify a beneficiary pattern from the analysis. The study suggested a relationship between seizures occurring from epilepsy and a controversial compound in Marijuana known as Cannabidiol (CBD). According to source, a third of the population with epilepsy continues to suffer from violent seizures long after currently available epileptic medical treatments. In other words, one out of three of such seizures cannot be controlled by present-day medicines or therapies. Consequentially, this has prompted a quest for an alternative solution to combat refractory epilepsy, leading to the possible discovering of a relationship between the reduction and/or elimination of epileptic seizures and implemented treatment of CBD.

Epilepsy results from abnormal and/or irregular patterns of electrical activity within the brain, it begs the question, what brain changes in a refractory epileptic individual can be notice while expose to EEG under CBD influence? Also, if seizures continue to occur, even after CBD has been administered, do seizures appear as generalize or as focal, when analyzed with EEG? Many portions of the brain may be disrupted by a single seizure, creating a challenging problem for epilepsy researchers due to the difficulty of accurately pinpointing potential relationships between abnormal changes in the brain and specific behavioral deficits.

Since epileptic seizures vary both in intensity and frequency; perhaps different parts of the brain may be disrupted or “electro-jacked” during the unfoldment of an epileptic seizure. Some seizures can be violent while others can be very subtle. Perhaps seizures that are violent and often may result in an individual’s temporary lost of consciousness are due to major brain systems such as the limbic system (involved in learning, memory and emotion) or the basal ganglia (involved in movement or motor functions) becoming electrically disrupted as a result of multiple and random electrical miss firing in the brain neural circuitry, creating an overcharged electronic environment that is too strong to be independently conducted through specific axons, perhaps diverging and amplifying electrical current chaotically permeating the brain, and thus producing violent seizures.

                                      

  

                                                   
What if epileptic seizures that are more subtle perhaps are the result of a specific brain part such as the hippocampus and not an entire system being disturbed? Are the abonormal patterns of electrical activity within the brain observed during seizures due to refractory epilepsy the result of a collective or individual part of the brain becoming electrically disrupted, and do these brain parts become “electro-jacked” in a simultaneous or progressive manner?   Even though seizures may vary in both intensity and frequency, can there be a common origin within the brain that is the sole cause of this electronic neural malfunction? Perhaps finding the origin will lead to one day entirely eliminating epileptic seizures in our society.

Source: http://neurosciencenews.com/cannabis-compound-seizures-8569

Stem Cell Treatment for those with Multiple Sclerosis

Multiple Sclerosis, or MS, is an autoimmune disease of the brain and spinal cord where the immune system begins attacking the myelin covering on axons. Damaging the myelin sheath can slow down or block signals being sent between and within your brain and body. This results in connection and communication issues and can potentially disable one physically and mentally. Some will lose the ability to coordinate movement, or lose mental functions developing thinking and memory problems. Due to sometimes the vagueness and range of symptoms, MS can be hard to diagnose. Currently there’s no cure, however treatments to manage the disease are available.

Considering this disease can potentially physically disable the person with it, there is much effort going into researching mitigation techniques. On February 22, 2018, a study published by Luca Peruzzoti-Jametti of the University of Cambridge made the claim that “Scientists have shown in mice that skin cells re-programmed into stem cells, transplanted into the central nervous system, help reduce inflammation and may be able to help repair damage caused by multiple sclerosis.” Stem cells possess the unique feature to be able to turn into any cell within the body. Traditionally, these cells are harvested from embryos of failed or terminated pregnancies, however, scientists have found a technique that can turn skin cells back into stem cell form. This technique alleviates the demand for stem cells from embryo’s (as there are not many available and this tends to be an ethical debate) and also reduces the chance of the patient developing an immune response to potentially “alien” cells in the body.

Science Daily writes that the researchers at the University of Cambridge have shown that the ‘induced neural stem cells’, or the stem cells made from reprogrammed skin cells have the power to reprogram the “bad” immune cells to be “good” from results seen on their mouse study. They report this treatment as a viable option to repairing the damage of MS and that the research could be used as a personalized treatment for other chronic inflammatory diseases. Considering now that our only treatments available at most slow down the progression of this disease, the potential for this new treatment to reverse the effects of MS is ground breaking science. There is now some hope for those who seemingly randomly acquired this unfortunate disease.

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/02/180222145111.htm

https://medlineplus.gov/multiplesclerosis.html

The Optogenetics Breakthrough

Over ten years ago, the first light-sensitive proteins derived from microbial opsins were injected into specific areas of the brain to manipulate neuronal activity. Depending on the properties of the opsins, they can either stimulate or inhibit a colony of neurons in response to light. This technique, known as Optogenetics, was a breakthrough for Neuroscientists. This method not only proves that we are capable of controlling cell action without the use of invasive electrodes, but can also show how behavior changes when a specific brain region is turned “on” or “off.” Many optogenetic studies that have been done in the past refer to the activation of a group of cells in a specific location in the brain, but this recent article: “Next-Generation Optogenetic Molecules Control Single Neurons,” written by Anne Trafton, a new method is introduced for targeting only one neuron at a time.

Scientists at MIT and Paris Descartes University developed a new, more powerful, light-sensitive proteins along with “holographic light-shaping that can focus light on a single cell” (Trafton). Many optogenetic studies include a large light that shines over a group of neurons, but in single-cell optogenetics, the light shape is reduced to just a width of 2-photons! This allows us to have precise, independent, and localized control over which neuron is getting stimulated, as well as excellent timing of the activation – responding consistently every time, and variability less than a millisecond.

With this discovery, we can learn more about the way neurons are connected to each other, in questioning if a neighboring neuron is controlling the other or if it receives stimulation from other signals far away. A professor at the Institute of Neurology in London is planning on using single-cell optogenetics in his studies of “diseases caused by mutations of proteins involved in synaptic communication between neurons” (Trafton). The more advancements in optogenetics technology, the more we can start to see how one single neuron can change a behavior. Soon enough, we might be able to determine what exactly a thought or feeling actually is.  

http://news.mit.edu/2017/next-generation-optogenetic-molecules-control-single-neurons-1113

TMS Treatment for Schizophrenia

Among some of the more severe mental disorders is Schizophrenia, which is characterized by serious changes to a person’s thoughts and behavior. The disorder is best known in popular culture by it’s psychotic symptoms, such as affected individuals hearing voices that are not there. Known as Auditory Verbal Hallucinations, these types of hallucinations are experienced by nearly 70% of those with the disorder, and can be absolutely terrifying for those that have them. Thus, many treatments for the disorder focus on the quieting of these voices, such as antipsychotic drugs. The causes of schizophrenia are generally not well understood, though it is commonly believed that an imbalance in dopamine may play a role amongst other things, such as damage to myelin sheaths being a potential cause.

In an attempt to further treatment, a research team at the University of Caen in France worked with schizophrenic patients to see if Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) could lessen the voices being heard. TMS is a method used in neuroscience to temporarily alter brain function utilizing a strong magnetic field, and can be precisely tuned to a specific brain region using methods such MRI. The team gave 26 patients TMS treatment and 33 other patients a sham treatment, and tested them using the Auditory Hallucinations Rating Scale to keep track of the voices they were hearing. Those in treatment received 20 Hz high-frequency pulses for 2 sessions a day for 2 days. The team was able to target the treatment to a part of the left side of the brain in the temporal lobe. The article states that said area is associated with language, which is most likely Wernicke’s area. The patients were then re-evaluated after 2 weeks and 34.6% of those that had TMS showed more than a 30% decrease in auditory hallucinations, versus 9.1% in the control group. The article states that this is the first controlled trial to see whether or not TMS would be a useful treatment.  

With this study comes the question of how this can be commercially applied as a treatment for schizophrenia, as the logistics are difficult given the nature of TMS. Similarly to this, TMS has been proven be promising in the treatment of depression. However, going to a doctor’s office for TMS twice daily for weeks on end is difficult for most people to accomplish.TMS is also something patients cannot do on their own unlike taking a pill once daily, as a very specific area of the brain has to be targeted and the machinery can be difficult to operate. A potential solution to this would be a mass produced portable device for TMS, but this has yet to be developed. For now, further research and development is needed to better mental illness treatment. 

Sources: 

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/09/170904181720.htm

https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/schizophrenia/index.shtml

Head Shape and the Brain

In The New York Times article, written by C. Claiborne Ray, "How does the Shape of a Head Affect the Brain?" the question of cranial deformation in various cultures is analyzed. Ray questions the long-term effects of these traditions in cultures, specifically Mayan artificial cranial deformation practices such as flattening the frontal bone and how this would affect brain development since these practices are performed in infancy up to four years of life. Ray, as well as researchers, is interested in this practice because during this time in life the brain is still rapidly developing, specifically the frontal lobe.

Several researchers have inquired about this practice and published articles in the Journal of Neurosurgery, The American Journal of Physical Anthropology, and The Journal of Anthropology as mentioned in the article. There are varying view points on the harm physical mutilation does to the brain. Some researchers think it could have lead to developmental delays, vision impairment, or object recognition impairments, such as those in The American Journal of Physical Anthropology journal entry listed in Ray's article. Others believed the flattening of the skull did more damage to the bone and face structure than the brain itself. These researchers believed practices like these would not have produced any impairments, such as the journal entry in Anthropology also listed in Ray's article. It is interesting the fascination with the skull ancient cultures had like some people had in the 19th century with the popular practice of phrenology invented by Franz Joseph Gall.

Phrenology is the study of the shape of the skull being linked to traits about the person, like truthfulness, wit, and individuality to name a few. The places where the skull was bumpier had a direct correlation with the prevalence of that trait in the individual. This was a very popular practice in the 19th century and individuals would pay large sums of money to get their skull read.  Although phrenology is more concerned with personality traits whereas cranial deformation is concerned with physical appearance and beauty, it is interesting to see the connection between times and cultures trying to make sense of the brain or mind with physical representation. Although ancient cultures would use the skull more for beauty purposes, the fascination with the the skull and the connection to the outside world, be it physical beauty or personality trait, crosses time and culture.


https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/01/science/head-shape-brain.html?rref=collection%2Ftimestopic%2FBrain&action=click&contentCollection=health&region=stream&module=stream_unit&version=latest&contentPlacement=9&pgtype=collection

New Noninvasive Way to Stimulate Deeper Brain Areas

For years, neuroscientists have been looking for a way to stimulate deeper brain regions that does not involve surgery. When it comes to stimulating brain areas there are really only two options: invasive surgery to stimulate deeper brain regions or noninvasive surface level stimulation. There are major pros and cons to both of these methods. Deeper brain stimulations such as ECOG, or electrocorticography, requires surgery where they remove part of the patient’s skull and place electrodes on the brain. This provides better localization and allows them to target deeper brain areas, but it is obviously extremely invasive and is only performed on people who already need brain surgery for medical reasons. Surface level stimulation such as EEG, or electroencephalography, involves the patient wearing a skull cap with electrodes on it. The benefits are it is noninvasive and can be used on a wider range of people. However, researchers are restricted to only stimulating surface level structures in the brain and it also has poor localization.

Now, researchers might have just discovered a method that is the best of both worlds, called temporal interference. The method involves beaming multiple electric frequencies that are too high for neurons to respond to from electrodes on the skull’s surface. Where the frequencies intersect in the brain end up canceling each other out and whatever the difference is between the frequencies stimulates that area of the brain. So for example, if you deliver 1,000 hertz and 1,001 hertz to an area in the brain, they will cancel each other out and that area will react as if you were stimulating it with 1 hertz. However, all of the other areas that the 1,000 hertz is going through will not react because the frequency is so high that it moves faster than our brains can process. It is a similar concept to why we cannot hear sonar. This method provides researchers with precise localization, which they further tested by aiming electricity at certain areas in mice’s motor cortices. This resulted in the mice moving their fore-paws, whiskers, or ears.

With this new method, comes a lot of practical questions. The major one being that this study was done with rats, so how will it work on humans? In an attempt to begin to answer this question, the study’s senior author and co-director is testing the method on people without disorders to see if it works in the human brain. There are other questions such as, how it would be used on patients with complex diseases, like Parkinson’s, who would need continuous stimulation. Also, would patients wear a portable electricity-delivery device? Another concern is making sure to avoid brain areas that would cause motor contractions or speech and vision impairments. One hope that researchers have, is that temporal interference can be developed for patients with epilepsy and provide them with an alternative to the extremely invasive procedure of ECOG. This method is something that neuroscientists have been wanting for a long time and if it is proved to be effective and safe through more research, temporal interference could be used to help people with a range of neurological and psychiatric disorders.

https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/01/health/new-electrical-brain-stimulation-technique-shows-promise-in-mice.html?rref=collection%2Fsectioncollection%2Fhealth

A Shock in Time Saves Nine: Understanding How “A Tiny Pulse of Electricity Can Help the Brain Form Lasting Memories”

We’ve all experienced, at one point or another, the inability to recall information that we thought we had memorized. Whether it’s items on a grocery list or terms for a test, our lapses demonstrate that the process of memorization is far from infallible. These types of memory failures inspired Michael Kahana and his team at the University of Pennsylvania to search for ways to improve our ability to memorize.

Earlier this month, NPR did a segment on Kahana’s research called “A Tiny Pulse of Electricity Can Help the Brain Form Lasting Memories.” The article begins by describing how Kahana and his team study the brain. There are many methods which scientists can use, each with their own advantages and disadvantages. To understand memory dysfunction, Kahana must study regions that are buried deep within the brain, which can be hard to access. Therefore, he studies the brains of patients with epilepsy; doctors have already inserted specialized wires into the brains of these patients to monitor electrical activity. This allows researchers to study the depths of their brains! This technique is called Electrocorticography, or more affectionately, ECOG. It allows researchers like Kahana to figure out exactly when and where the brain is activated. Thus, he can determine how the brain accomplishes a task, such as memorization.

Using this technique, Kahana’s team was able to figure out the specific pattern of activity demonstrated when the brain successfully memorized a list of words. No surprise here: this activation pattern was different when a person was successful in memorizing than when forgetting would occur. In other words, the way our brain works as we try to memorize can actually determine if we will be able to recall the information at a later time!

An image from Kahana’s research team.
The dots in red indicate where on the brain,
a pulse of electricity caused a change in memorization ability    

Once Kahana knew how a successfully memorizing brain ought to look, he set out to improve our ability to memorize. In the experiment described by NPR, Kahana continued to work with the patients with epilepsy. He gave them a list of words to memorize. As the patients memorized, a computer monitored the activity of their brain. If it appeared their brain cells were not being activated in the memory-forming pattern, a pulse of electricity would be delivered to the brain. When this pulse of electricity was delivered to the area involved in recalling words (officially called the lateral temporal cortex), the researchers noted a significant increase in the patients’ ability to remember. In effect, Kahana’s team was able to modify the brain’s activity, prompting a higher rate of successful memorization.

The ultimate goal of this research is to create a wearable device that would recognize upcoming memory lapses and correct the brain’s course. This could be especially useful for patients with Alzheimer’s. While this research certainly is promising, it is important to consider the limitations of this study. One of the members of Kahana’s team, Michael Sperling, explains that any findings from patients with epilepsy may not apply to unaffected brains. Those with epilepsy tend to have a variety of other conditions that affect the memorization process.

Another major hurdle facing the team is the transition from delivering electrical pulses from within the brain to sending them from an external, wearable device. Despite the research yet to be done, this team is very optimistic that they can create a memory-boosting device “within the next half a dozen years or so” (Sperling, 2018). So don’t forget to be on the lookout for this new technology!

Citations:

Ezzyat, Y., Wanda, P. A., Levy, D. F., Kadel, A., Aka, A., Pedisich, I., Kahana, M. J. (2018). Closed-loop stimulation of temporal cortex rescues functional networks and improves memory. Nature Communications,9(1). doi:10.1038/s41467-017-02753-0

Hamilton, J. (2018, February 06). A Tiny Pulse Of Electricity Can Help The Brain Form Lasting Memories. Retrieved February 23, 2018, from https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2018/02/06/583633391/a-tiny-pulse-of-electricity-can-help-the-brain-form-lasting-memories