Micro Eye Movements Keep Still Life From Fading Away

See this picture on the left? Try staring at the red circle for a moment, while paying attention to the gray ring. After a few seconds, doesn't it seem to that the circle fades away and you're left with just a red dot on a white background?

You can thank Ignal Paul Vital Troxler for figuring that out: according to this Swiss philosopher, we now that that deliberately focusing on a fixed object causes other surround stationary objects to fade away.

Once you move your eyes, the gray circle should be visible again.

So what is actually going on here?

According to scientists, our eyes are always in motion and there's one type of motion we control, called saccades, such as when we deliberately scan a room, and one type we don't, microsaccades, which are just as crucial.

To understand why these microsaccades are so important in our visual perception, its also important to understand the concept of neural adaptation. Much like our nervous system adapts to the constant, unchanging stimulus of us wearing a watch or glasses, for example, the visual neurons would too adapt to constantly unchanging (static) visual stimulus. The article uses the example of a frog that cannot see a fly sitting on a wall but can see it as soon as the fly starts flying around. Our visual neurons aren't comparable to Kermit's but we also use these tiny subconscious movements, these microsaccades, to keep our visual neurons from "falling asleep" and causing stationary objects to drift away.

Research on micro-saccades is pretty niche but it isn't new — the article cites studies from the 1950's, one in particular where scientists created and fit a tiny projector over the eye in order for the visual scene to move with these micro-movements. They basically stabilised the retina, rendering the microsaccade motion useless. (If anyone reading this is a photography buff, you can think of microsaccades as the inverse of the Image Stabilizer found in some of the pricier lenses. What it does is much like what your eye does: it creates internal micro-movements within the lens to prevent image blur when shooting pictures while holding your camera, helping to combat the natural shaking of an unsteady photographer. But, if you inadvertently leave it on while shooting with a tripod, the stabilizer actually causes the blur. Our eyes want to do the opposite, they want to keep the image shaking.)

More modern research uses computer eye-tracking devices linked to a projector that moves the image you're looking at with the movement of your eyes; no more wearing scary suction cups over your eyes to participate in this type of study.

The article goes on to discuss the potential neuronal responses the micro-saccades are responsible for generating in the brain. (research with monkeys showed activation in the lateral geniculate nucleus and the primary visual cortex)

What I found particularly interesting about these micro-saccades is that researchers found that they may be useful in determining what it is we are actually paying attention in our visual field, even inadvertently. Research done at McGill University found that the direction of microsaccades was often biased in the direction where subjects were actually paying attention. Another, different, study showed that the frequency of the microsaccades affected visibility: the larger they were, the better the visibility. Or, as the article put it:

"microsaccade frequency can betray your attentional spotlight."

This article seemed pretty spot on in discussing the purpose of microsaccades and sites of possible neuronal activation, but as a point of criticism, with the advent of "neuromarketing", I think its only a matter of time before labs that use EEG and eye movement tracking (usually of saccades, the bigger, intentional movements we make) will also claim to be able to track our microsaccades to tell their clients "what we're really thinking" without factouring into account that microsaccade activity correlates with other brain activity in an EEG reading (gamma band activity, to be specific).

http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=shifting-focus

Brandwashing

Everyday we hear about "scientific studies" being done that cost thousands and sometimes millions of dollars. In the end, they come up with the result that anyone with any common sense could have figured out. Now, this study comes out to tell us something everyone has known for decades: Sex Sells! Whether it is Danica getting men to visit godaddy.com or a "tall, dark, and handsome male" attempting to get lonely women to join a dating site. All I can think about is, "wasn't there a better way to spend money on research?" I admit, I have made purchases that I thought would help me be more attractive to the opposite sex, but I wouldn't call that brandwashing, I would call it a natural instinct!

The article also mentions how an Apple may be advertised as fresh but may possibly be 14 months old. I once read an article that stated that apples are sprayed with a solution that makes the apple smell fresh when in reality it is not. This is false advertisement but the company selling apples still gets you to purchase the product. We as humans believe everything that we see and read and we need to stop that because as we see in the media, a lot of it is twisted to draw our attention to the advertisement.

Also, Ebay users trick the human brain by saying that with multiple purchases comes lower shipping rates. Thus, meaning that the seller makes more money and only has to ship one package, making the shipment price lower. The personal making the purchase does not necessarily take this into account. People automatically think, "lower shipping therefore, I can buy more!"

This article can be found at http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=mind-reviews-brandwashed&WT.mc_id=SA_sharetool_Facebook
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Sometimes, you just get S.A.D.

Ever since I was younger, I always dreaded winter coming. My mood would instantly change, and I would always feel tired or drained. I always figured it was just the cold weather getting to me. but it wasn't until I took AP Psych in High School, that I realized what I was feeling were slight symptoms of S.A.D., and the disorder affects more people than you think.

Ever realize how much harder it is to get out of bed in the winter, when the days are shorter, and the morning still dark? Or even when it is dark and stormy out, and the clouds are covering up the sun.

According to Dr. Alfred Lewy, a professor of psychiatry at Oregon Health and Science University and an expert on seasonal depression and light therapy, our natural clock is usually longer than our actual 24 clock and the light we see in the morning is what sets it and keeps it on track. Since morning is generally later in the winter, our natural rhythm adjusts to that. However, since we are not able to adjust our lives to when dawn comes, we can fix the change by using light therapy for as little as 30-45 minutes before we start our day.

So for the millions of Americans who suffer from these "winter blues", light therapy can be extremely affective in dealing with the disorder. Patients can usually just deal with the disorder by sitting in front of a light box.

Light therapy has also been seen to help people with sleep disorders, whose natural clock is interrupted due to irregular sleeping patterns. Light also affects our hormones, which in turn, affects the brain’s hypothalamus, which is involved in regulating mood, energy and appetite.

Although light therapy is seen to be very effective for S.A.D., many people do not have the patience to since around for 30-45 in front of a light-box in the morning. Also, if you're anything like me, you'd rather sleep for the extra minutes. So just remember, try to get as much light light as you can this winter! Do homework in a well lit place, take walks during the day when the weather isn't too harsh out. Take a trip to California, or some place sunny. Just remember, make sure you stay warm this winter, but also make sure you get plenty of light. You might just start enjoying the season a whole lot more.

http://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/15/health/policy/light-boxes-may-help-melt-those-winter-blues.html?ref=science

Psychopaths: Born evil or with a diseased brain?

Every day in the news we hear about someone that was raped or murdered. Though what is rare is hearing about a serial killer that committed multiple rapes and murders. What is even rarer is a serial killer that does not show remorse for what he or she has done, which is labeled as a psychopath. When we hear about these kinds of cases we think to ourselves what could possibly be wrong with them that they could commit atrocious acts and feel nothing when reflecting on their crimes. Because of this, people tend to think of psychopaths as simply being evil but Dr. Kent Kiehl, a behavioral neuroscientist at the University of New Mexico, has set out to show that psychopathology is a disorder that is rooted in brain. He also believes that the lack of empathy also plays a important role in a psychopath's behavior.

Dr. Keihl started by examining Brian Dugan, who was convicted of ; the brutal rapes and murders of 2 - 7 year old girls, a 27 year old nurse, and several other rapes. According to Keihl, Brian struggles to understand why people even care about his crimes and he can recount these crimes with simplicity, as if someone asked him what he had for breakfast.

Dr. Keihl's lab built a mobile brain scanner to take into the prison to take images of Brian's brain during a few tasks. Specifically Dr, Keihl wanted to look at the brain density and activity compared to normal brains during these tasks. When taking images of Brian's brain he saw that there were low levels of density in the para-limbic system, which includes areas like the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex (areas we learned in class are responsible for emotion processing). He concluded from this that this system did not develop properly in Brian and he further suggests this may be genetically determined. He also monitored Brian’s reaction to distressing images, and found low activity in Brian’s para-limbic during emotion processing. Dr. Keihl conducted the same test on a number of subjects in prisons across the US. He concluded that psychopaths simply lack an emotional ability, as some people lack intellectual ability. He also, is working on devising a system to detect the early cues of a future psychopath in children and an effective way to intervene.

We learned in class that empathy is not innate because children under 3 years of age cannot demonstrate it, and that it emerges around the time children develop cognitive understanding. We also learned that decision making is influenced by learned associations between emotional events and the affective response that occurs as a result. So this makes me question of if the density of the para-limbic areas is genetic or just the result of the environment in which the child grew up. Also, it would be interesting to see how mirror neurons respond in psychopaths because we learned in class that these neurons are important for our ability to empathize with others by permitting us to stimulate others’ internal states within our own bodies.

Here is the link to the article : http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-15386740

The Teenage Brain Complex

We've all gone through the treacherous years as a teenager with the awkward changes and further physical and emotional development, and we are all still going through this process of development as we approach our mid-20's. Surprisingly enough, an interesting cause of irrational decisions in teenagers correlates to much of what is happening in their skulls.





The brain has reached 90% of its size by the time we reach our teens, yet our brain is undergoing one of the most critical points in its development. Between 12 and 25, our brain undergoes massive reconstruction; our network paths are re-wired and upgraded becoming far more permanent and efficient. This resembling of our neural pathways start in our posterior part of our brain and slowly, but surely, move towards the frontal cortex. More basic functions take place in the posterior part of our brain, hence the reason they are solidified first. Our higher executive functions take place in the anterior portion of our brain, and the slow process allows for the best outcomes and ultimately a smarter and higher functioning person.





Normal developmental processes of the brain ultimately aid in more complex and sensible actions as well as control in balancing impulses and desires, assessment of goals and self-interests, and grasp of rules and ethics. Yet, during the process of reconstruction teenagers come off far from these attributes. They seem far more irrational and clumsy, but it can be linked to massive change they are undergoing in their brains.





In the teenage brain, axons become thicker, dendrites become twiggier, synaptic pruning takes place, and gray matter gets thinner. The thickening of the axons make transmission speed between neurons faster, and the branching of the dendrites allow connections to grow stronger between heavily used synapses. Synapses that see little to no use are pruned away making the gray matter, used in thinking and consciousness, thinner but far more efficient. These network improvements allow for faster mental processing and much higher executive functions.





Brain scans that became available in the 90's allowed for research of the teenage brain which really helped to show that the changes in the brain that teenagers undergo are key for the development of our higher mental processes. Brain scans also allowed for research to be done with regards to understanding the importance of peer connections and a social life in the teenager. Besides peer connections, there is a new understanding of the teenage brain and how it responds to risk, which shockingly is much similar to how adults view risks accept they see a greater gain with the reward from the risk.





So, overall the teenage brain develops so that it can fully and intelligently integrate into the world of adults. The slow, back-to-front changes of the brain give teenagers the best chance for future success, but surely the crazy teenage years of extremely development really pay off in the long run.





Source: http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2011/10/teenage-brains/dobbs-text/1

A Need to Increase Brain Injury Rehabilitation Awareness

I can recall many times in my life where I have accidentally hit my head on something. From the day that I could walk, I can remember specific times where I would run into something; walls, doors, even parked cars, etc. Times where I was in a situation, such as a car accident or a bike accident, where I would bang my head. Luckily, I can still remember each of these events and all of my memories are still intact. Until recently, I didn’t realize how truly lucky I was that I still had the ability to remember all of these events and the events prior to my injuries.

Unfortunately, there are many individuals who suffer from Traumatic Brain Injuries (T.B.I.) due to being similar situations. According to reports from domestic emergency rooms, there are about 1.7 million T.B.I. diagnoses that occur every year. While about 52,000 of these individuals die, the rest can suffer from a variety effects including physical, cognitive, social, emotional, and behavioral disabilities that hinder them from living their everyday lives.

In the New York Time’s article, “ Starting Again After a Brain Injury ,” Jane Rosett talks about her own experience of recovering from a Traumatic Brain Injury. Rosett suffered from a T.B.I. because at the age of 45, she was involved in car accident where she hit her head on the car’s windshield. This injury left her with a head fracture and damage to the right temporal lobe. It also took away most of her memories prior to the injury, also known as retrograde amnesia. It left her with the inability to recognize her family, friends, and certain objects. Even though T.B.I. took away most of her memories, some of them would slowly come back to her, as she describes, “Shards of memories pierce my consciousness before fragmenting and melting into fresh half-syllables.” Our brains’ ability to restructure itself, or neuroplasticity, is what allowed her to continue to function through life. This with some self therapy and therapy from the Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital allowed her to recover. Even though Jane Rosett was about to receive this treatment, very few people of those 1.7 million have the same opportunity.

It is this that needs to change. I think Rosett says it best when she says, “It is a big deal to be somewhere where nobody will laugh at you for rediscovering gum at age 50.” We need to increase awareness of proper T.B.I. rehabilitation. When I broke my arm, I was given the red carpet treatment. I had a full access to a physician, surgeon, nurse, and most importantly a physical therapist. This is just not the cause for most brain injury patients, while they are helped through the injury, there is little to no effort put into rehabilitation. This effort starts with us; it starts with voicing our concerns with the current process.

You can begin to help by supporting the Brain Injury Association of America, click for more information. It is through this support that we will be able achieve proper rehabilitation of the 1.7 million.

Do You Have the Empathy Gene?

Empathy plays a major role in our day to day social interactions. The ability to put yourself in someone else’s shoes and understand how that person feels influences much of our behavior. Many research studies have sought to determine exactly which parts of the brain relate to empathy. Mirror neurons located in the premotor cortex, inferior frontal gyrus, and parietal lobe have proven to be important at recognizing another’s internal state. The Theory of Mind illustrates the ability to comprehend others’ minds and relate to their emotions based on your own. Are these examples the only links to empathy or do others exist?

     Research at the University of California, Berkeley, by Aleksandr Kogan prove that there’s actually a gene that makes people more inclined to be empathetic. He randomly selected 48 people, performed DNA tests on them, and paired them together. He videotaped each of the participants listening to the other’s story about how they have suffered in some way. He then had outside observers watch the tape on just the listener.  Within 20 seconds the observer would decide the degree of empathy they judged the listener to have. The people with the highest ratings turned out to possess a particular variation of the oxytocin receptor gene known as the GG genotype as opposed to the other participants who had an AA or AG allele combination. People with the latter combinations were less able to put themselves in others’ shoes and became anxious in stressful conditions, while people with the GG genotype could accurately determine others’ emotions. Oxytocin, also known as the “love” hormone, is secreted into the bloodstream and the brain, where it promotes social interaction, bonding and romantic love, among other functions. So, how could the observers accurately rate the more empathetic people without knowing they possessed that particular gene? Kogan states, “What we found is that the people who had two copies of the G version displayed more trustworthy behaviors -- more head nods, more eye contact, more smiling, more open body posture. And it was these behaviors that signaled kindness to the strangers”. This implies that the observers must have implicitly recognized the body language and behavior associated with empathy. The question then arises what function of the brain is responsible for recognizing these cues?

     Although recognizing body language cues in order to infer behavior is most likely a combination of many functions in the brain including the facial action coding system, my hunch is that mirror neurons play a role as well. The idea of mirror neurons revolves around a codependent relationship between perception and action. This means that in order to comprehend another’s actions we must reference how that action is produced with our own visual representations. Since mirror neurons have this codependent relationship between another’s actions and reference to our own actions, one wonders whether you would be more likely to recognize an empathetic person if you yourself are empathetic. Because this particular gene is also associated with romantic behavior and bonding, you could also beg the question of whether your romantic partner has the same allele combination as you. Maybe your level of empathy is what you found attractive in each other. While these are just speculations, it is an interesting notion to ponder. Do you have the empathy gene?

article: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/11/111115103510.htm?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+sciencedaily+%28ScienceDaily%3A+Latest+Science+News%29